FAQs
Section 1: What Is PFAS and Why Destruction Matters
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of man-made chemicals used since the 1940s in products ranging from nonstick cookware to firefighting foams. They are called "forever chemicals" because their structural backbone consists ofcarbon-fluorine bonds. The carbon-fluorine bond is one of the strongest molecular bonds, and under most circumstances it does not naturally degrade.
PFAS contamination has been detected in drinking water supplies across the U.S. and globally, and according to the U.S. EPA, PFAS exposure has been linked to reproductive and developmental effects, increased risk of some cancers, impaired immune system response to infection, hormonal impacts, and increased cholesterol levels.
PFAS removal technologies, including granular activated carbon (GAC), ion exchange resins, and reverse osmosis, capture PFAS molecules and remove them from waters, but do not eliminate them. Removal technologies only relocate the PFAS; the concentrated PFAS waste generated during removal still requires disposal. Disposal technologies risk re-release of the PFAS back into the environment. On the other hand, PFAS destruction permanently breaks down the PFAS molecules thereby converting them to non-PFAS byproducts. PFAS destruction, not just removal, is the only approach that eliminates PFAS from the global environment.
Yes. PFAS destruction technologies like Enspired Solutions' photo-activated reductive defluorination (PRD) and PFASigator® equipment have demonstrated the ability to permanently mineralize PFAS compounds, breaking them down into non-toxic components including fluoride, and simple carbon compounds like acetic and formic acid.
The PFASigator has achieved greater than 99.9% destruction of total regulated PFAS in validated field and lab tests and is in commercial use today.
Yes. In April 2024, the U.S. EPA finalized the first national drinking water standards for six PFAS, setting maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for PFOA and PFOS at 4 parts per trillion, effectively the detection limit for most analytical methods.
In May 2025, EPA announced it would retain enforceable maximum contaminant levels of 4 parts per trillion for PFOA and PFOS, while rescinding and reconsidering the standards for PFHxS, PFNA, HFPO-DA (GenX), and the PFAS mixture hazard index.
These regulations affect public water systems serving tens of millions of Americans and have driven significant demand for both PFAS treatment and destruction technologies. Enspired Solutions' PRD and PFASigator have been validated to meet and surpass these new regulatory standards.
Yes. PFAS are regulated in several water types besides drinking water. The approach, enforceability, and maturity of these regulations vary by water type and by state.
PFAS are increasingly controlled in surface waters at the state level via Clean Water Act tools; in wastewater discharges through permits (National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)), monitoring, and emerging limits; in stormwaters through indirect regulation via permits and source controls; groundwater at the state level via specific programs; and reclaimed/reuse water via permits and end use restrictions.
Section 2: How the PFASigator® Works
The PFASigator® uses patented chemistry called photo-activated reductive defluorination (PRD) to destroy PFAS. PRD is activated by ultraviolet (UV) light, which cleaves carbon-carbon and carbon-fluorine bonds in PFAS molecules, effectively “unzipping” PFAS molecules, beginning at the hydrophilic acid tail group. Once those bonds are broken, the remaining byproducts are non-toxic components such as fluoride, formic acid, and acetic acid. As of the end of 2025, PRD has been validated to destroy long-chain, short-chain, and ultra-short chain PFAS in over 150 environmental samples in both bench and field conditions.
Unlike incineration or other thermal approaches to PFAS destruction, PRD operates at ambient temperature and pressure, making it significantly more energy-efficient and safer to operate. In addition, PRD is a reductive process, so it avoids the production of toxic byproducts like perchlorate and HF that can be generated during oxidative destruction processes.
The PFASigator® has been validated to destroy long-chain and short-chain PFAS as well as precursors using Enspired’s photo-activated reductive defluorination (PRD) chemistry.
Destruction has been validated on regulated long-chain PFAS such as PFOS, PFOA, PFNA, and PFHxS and short-chain PFAS such as PFBS, with high levels of destruction achieved in authentic, real-world groundwater, landfill leachate, municipal and industrial wastewater, and firetruck and fire system rinsate matrices. Destruction of ultra-short chain PFAS, like TFA, has been validated at bench scale.
PFASigator® performance, or the rate of PFAS destruction, is partially matrix dependent. Basic water chemistry data can help us understand likely performance in a specific matrix. Enspired Solutions can also provide compound- and matrix-specific performance data for a specific water matrix through sample screening, treatability testing, and pilot testing; these tests are the best way to estimate full-scale system CAPEX and OPEX costs.
The photo-activated reductive defluorination (PRD) process returns PFAS molecules to non-toxic molecular components, primarily fluoride, water, and simple carbon compounds like acetic and formic acid. There are no hazardous byproducts and no concentrated PFAS waste stream requiring further disposal. This distinguishes the PFASigator® from capture-based technologies that generate secondary waste.
High-temperature incineration and supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) can destroy PFAS but require extreme temperatures (often 1,000°C+) and/or high pressure, resulting in high energy costs, significant infrastructure, and potential for incomplete destruction and toxic combustion byproducts. The PFASigator® operates at ambient temperature and pressure using a targeted chemical process, reducing energy costs substantially and eliminating the need for specialized thermal handling equipment.
See the Case Studies Section of Our Website for Authentic Data on PFASigator® Performance.
Section 3: Performance & Validation
The PFASigator® has demonstrated greater than 99.9% destruction of total regulated PFAS in both laboratory and real-world field conditions. In a recent field pilot, the PFASigator® achieved >99.9% destruction of total regulated PFAS and >99% destruction of total PFAS in groundwater concentrate. In the same pilot, PFOS reduced from 6,000,000 ppt to 740 ppt and PFOA reduced from 1,100,000 ppt to 500 ppt. More details about this field pilot can be found in our Case Studies.
Notably, photo-activated reductive defluorination (PRD) follows first order reaction kinetics, meaning the same amount of energy is required to move from 0% to 90% destruction, 90% to 99% destruction, and 99 to 99.9% destruction. PRD will continue to destroy PFAS for as long as UV light is supplied, however there is a balance to be struck between energy use and PFAS destruction extent. When the PFASigator® is applied in a recirculating process flow with a concentration technology like foam fractionation, only one order of magnitude destruction is needed to achieve a steady state process meeting discharge criteria and maintaining low energy use. More details about application of this recirculating process flow can be found in our Case Studies.
Yes. The PFASigator® has been lab and field tested by entities ranging from federal, state and local authorities to landfills, airports, industrial manufacturers, and engineering companies. Extent of PFAS destruction has been confirmed with third-party PFAS analysis by accredited laboratories.
Furthermore, photo-activated reductive defluorination (PRD) performance has been validated in U.S. Department of War (DoW) testing programs, the Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP) and Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP). The technology also won an award from DoW and U.S. EPA under their joint evaluation criteria for PFAS destruction technologies, meeting requirements for both destruction efficiency and energy performance.
Yes. Enspired Solutions completed its first commercial sale of the PFASigator® in 2024, marking a significant milestone in transitioning from pilot to commercial deployment. Our first customer chose Enspired Solutions’ on-site PFAS destruction technology because "the PFASigator® is the safest and most practical form of PFAS destruction on the market." Read the related Press Release.
Enspired Solutions is currently manufacturing PFASigators® at our Lansing, Michigan headquarters and has active pilot and deployment projects with clients including the U.S. Department of War, municipal water authorities, airport authorities, and industrial and engineering firms.
The PFASigator® and photo-activated reductive defluorination (PRD) have been recognized by the U.S. EPA and the Department of War (DoW) through their joint PFAS destruction technology evaluation program. Furthermore, performance has been validated in DoW testing programs, the Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP) and Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP).
Enspired Solutions has also been awarded contracts for field application of the PFASigator® from DoW, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and a variety of states, airports, and private companies.
Section 4: Deployment & Operations
The PFASigator® is designed to treat PFAS-contaminated water across a wide range of matrices, including groundwater, surface water, municipal drinking water and wastewater, industrial wastewater, landfill leachate, fire system rinsates, and sorbent regenerants, among others. It has been tested and deployed across all of these applications. The system is proven effective at PFAS concentrations ranging from low ppt to 100s of ppm; at pH levels ranging from 3 to 13; and in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
The PFASigator is only designed to treat liquid phase waste. It is not intended to treat flammable liquid mixtures, as defined under the National Fire Protection Association Standard 30. Additionally, it does not support the treatment of slurries, sludges, or highly viscous materials.
One PFASigator® has the ability to destroy >99% PFAS in upwards of 1,600 GPD of concentrate; this translates to whole system flows of over 1MGD. There are multiple factors that go into an estimate of the treatment capacity of one PFASigator® on a site-specific water matrix, including water quality, treatment objectives, and concentration factor achieved by the companion concentration technology.
The PFASigator® pairs well with foam fractionation as a PFAS concentration technology. Foam fractionation typically concentrates PFAS from the system flow by 1,000x to 10,000x. This can reduce a whole system flow of 1MGD to 100 GPD; less than the capacity of one PFASigator®.
The PFASigator® is designed as modular equipment; multiple units can be deployed to treat larger system flows, as needed. Enspired Solutions works directly with clients to evaluate site-specific conditions, conduct bench and field testing as needed, and size systems accordingly.
The PFASigator® is suitable for both deployment models. The PFASigator® is designed to be compact, modular, and mobile, enabling on-site deployment at contaminated sites without major infrastructure construction. This makes it suitable for temporary remediation projects, emergency response scenarios, and pilot demonstrations, as well as permanent installation at water treatment facilities.
The pallet-sized PFASigator® is 8 feet long, 7 feet tall, and 5.4 feet wide with an estimated weight of 4,500 lbs. It can be positioned with a pallet jack. The PFASigator® requires a 480V, 3 phase, 30 amp power supply; three-foot clearance (min) on each side for access considerations; influent and effluent connections; freshwater supply; and a flat, stable operating surface.
In most applications, pre-treatment by PFAS concentration such as foam fractionation, reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, or a combination, is required to maximize treatment efficiency. Other pre-treatment requirements depend on site-specific water quality. Enspired Solutions works directly with clients to evaluate site-specific conditions, conduct bench and field testing as needed, and define pre-treatment needs.
The PFASigator® is designed for operational ease and reliability with straightforward maintenance requirements typical of UV-based treatment systems. Routine maintenance downtime estimates are: one hour monthly; four hours semi-annually; and two days annually. Specific maintenance schedules are provided during the equipment purchase or lease process.
Enspired Solutions provides operator training and ongoing technical support. Contact the team for detailed O&M specifications for your application.
Section 5: Markets & Applications
Enspired Solutions serves a broad range of clients facing PFAS contamination challenges, including U.S. Department of War; municipal water and wastewater utilities; airports; industrial and manufacturing facilities; microelectronics, semi-conductor, and high-tech facilities; landfill operators; environmental service companies; environmental remediation firms; industrial service companies; systems integrators; civil and environmental engineering firms; and fire departments.
Not only can the PFASigator® be used for regulatory compliance, pollution liability mitigation, pollution control efficiency, and addressing public perception, it can be used to expand service offerings by environmental service companies, industrial service companies, and systems integrators. By buying or leasing a PFASigator®, companies can offer on-site PFAS destruction in waters as a service to their own clients.
Aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) used in fire suppression contains high concentrations of PFAS. When fire trucks and fire suppression systems are cleaned or decommissioned, the resulting rinsate is PFAS-contaminated. The PFASigator® destroys PFAS directly in the rinsate on site in a process that enhances PFAS removal from contaminated equipment and eliminates the risk and expense of transporting PFAS to off-site disposal facilities. This approach reduces cost, liability, and logistical complexity for fire departments, airports, industrial clients, and others. See this Case Study for more information.
Enspired Solutions is headquartered in Lansing, Michigan, and operates at project sites across the United States.
The company has a global mission to address PFAS contamination and is pursuing international market opportunities. Deployment locations are driven by client need, and the mobile nature of the PFASigator® enables project work across diverse geographies without requiring a local facility.
Yes. Environmental remediation firms, environmental service companies, industrial service companies, and systems integrators can purchase or lease the PFASigator® and use it to deliver on-site PFAS destruction services to their own clients. Enspired Solutions provides training and technical support to enable operators to run the system effectively in the field. This model allows service providers to immediately expand their PFAS management offerings, meet the PFAS treatment needs of their clients, and increase their revenues.
Section 6: About Enspired Solutions
Enspired Solutions was co-founded in 2021 by Dr. Denise Kay (CEO) and Dr. Meng Wang (CTO).
Dr. Kay holds a Ph.D. from the MSU Institute of Environmental Toxicology and spent over two decades in environmental consulting on contaminant fate and transport before founding Enspired Solutions. Dr. Wang is a chemical engineer and MBA with experience in data analytics, groundwater modeling, and a passion for entrepreneurship.
Yes. Enspired Solutions is certified as a Women's Business Enterprise (WBE) by the Women's Business Enterprise National Council (WBENC) and as a Women Owned Small Business (WOSB). The company is founded, led, and majority-owned by women, and the leadership team views that identity as central to our mission and culture.